English Punctuation: Apostrophe

The apostrophe probaly causes more grief than any of the other punctuation marks put together!

The problem nearly always seems to stem from users not understandingthat the apostrophe has two very different (and very important) uses in English.

to show possession and ownership - e.g. Jack's car. Mary's father.

to indicate a contraction - he's (he is), we're (we are), they're (they are)

These two examples show the apostrophe being used for possession (sentence 1) and contraction (sentence 2)

• Colombia's coffee exports have risen steadily over the past decade.
• Colombia's one of the main coffee producing countries in the world.

The POSSESSIVE APOSTROPHE

In most cases you simply need to add 's to a noun to show possession:

• a ship's captain, a doctor's patient, a car's engine, Ibrahim's coat, Mirianna's book.

Plural nouns that do not end in s also follow this rule:

• the children's room, the men's work, the women's club

Ordinary (or common) nouns that end in s, both singular and plural, show possession simply by adding an ' after the s but proper nouns (names of people, cities, countries etc.) can form the possessive either by adding the 's or simply adding the ':

• a. The Hughes' home (or the Hughes's home), Mr Jones's shop (or Mr Jones' shop), Charles' book (or Charles's book)
• b. the ladies' tennis club, the teachers' journal, the priests' church (note that the priest's church would only be refering to one priest while the priests' church refers to a group.)

General notes: Many people want to know how to form the possessive of their own name when it ends in an 's' or when refering to the whole family, e.g. The Jones' children.

Today it is no longer considered incorrect to use either form (Jones's or Jones') and many largeorganisations now drop the ' completely (e.g. Barclays Bank,Missing Persons Bureau) when publishing their name.

The APOSTROPHE for CONTRACTION

The most common use of contracted apostrophes is for:

• has'nt = had not
• can't = can not
• there's = there is
• mustn't = must not
• I'm = I am
• it's = it is
• let's = let us
• I've = I have (also they've, we've)
• she's = she has or she is (also he's)
Remember:
• it's = it is (a contraction) while its = possession
• who's = who is (a contraction) while whose = possession

The Exclamation Mark

The exclamation mark is used to express exasperation,astonishment or surprise or to emphasise a comment or short, sharp phrase.

Examples

• Help! Help!
• That's unbelievable!
• Get out!
• Look out!

You can also use it to mark a phrase as humourous, ironic or sarcastic.

• 1. What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a lovely day)
• 2. That was clever! (when someone has done something stupid)

Some general remarks:

• Don't overuse the exclamation mark
• Don't include a series of exclamation marks. E.g., I'll never get it right!!!!

The Question Mark

Use the question mark:

1. At the end of all direct questions

• What is your name?
• Do you speak Italian?
• You're Spanish, aren't you?

2. Do not use the question mark for reported questions

• He asked me what my name was.
• She asked if I was Spanish.
• Ask them where they are going.

General notes:

1. Don't forget to place a question mark at the end of long sentences that contain a question

• Isn't it true that global warming is responsible for more and more problems which are having a disastrous effect on the world's climate and leading to many millions of people in countries that can least afford it having to contend with more and more hardship?

2. Sometimes a question mark can be placed within a sentence

• There is cause for concern - isn't there? - that the current world economic balance is so fragile that it may lead to a global economic downturn.

The Comma

There are some general rules which you can apply when using the comma.

However, you will find that in English there are many other ways to use the comma to add to the meaning of a sentence or to emphasise an item, point or meaning.

Although we are often taught that commas are used to help us add 'breathing spaces' to sentences they are, in fact, more accurately used to organise blocks of thought or logical groupings. Most people will now use commas to ensure that meaning is clear and, despite grammatical rules, will drop the comma if their meaning is retained in the sentence.

A. Using the comma to separate phrases, words, or clauses in lists

1. a series of phrases

• On my birthday I went to the cinema, ate dinner in a restaurant,and went dancing.

2. a series of nouns

• The meal consisted of soup, fish, chicken, dessert and coffee.

3. a series of adjectives

• She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.
  Note: if an adjective is modifying another adjective you do not separate them with a comma - e.g. She wore a bright red shirt.

4. a series of verbs

• Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.

5. a series of clauses

• The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally stopped against a tree.

B. Using the comma to enclose insertions or comments. The comma is placed on either side of the insertion.

• China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.

C. Use the comma to mark off a participial phrase

• Hearing that her father was in hospital, Jane left work immediately.

D. Use the comma in 'tag questions'

• She lives in Paris, doesn't she?
• We haven't met, have we?

E. Use to mark off interjections like 'please', 'thank you', 'yes', and 'no'

• Yes, I will stay a little longer, thank you.

General notes:

1. Misplacing a comma can lose friends!

Putting a comma in the wrong place can lead to a sentence with a completely different meaning, look at these two examples:

• I detest liars like you, I believe that honesty is the best policy.
• I detest liars, like you, I believe that honesty is the best policy.

The 'Period', 'Full Stop' or 'Point'

The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably the simplest of the punctuation marks to use.

You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length. Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and complete thought that looks and sounds right to you. Use the full stop

1. to mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation.

• Rome is the capital of Italy.
• I was born in Australia and now live in Indonesia.
• The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people.

2. to indicate an abbreviation

• I will be in between 6 a.m. and 7 p.m.

Note: Dr and Mr and Mrs and Ms do not take a full stop nor do most abbreviations taken from the first capital letters such as MA Phd CNN

3. special case - three dots

Often you will see a sentence concluding with three dots. This indicates that only part of the sentence or text has been quoted or that it is being left up to the reader to complete the rest of the sentence.

• The Lord's Prayer begins, 'Our Father which are in Heaven...'

3. fullstop after a single word

Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after the word as you would in any other sentence.

• "Goodbye."
• "Hello."

Note: This is often the case when the subject is understood as in a greeting or a command such as "Stop."